Recordings and audio recordings up to 1860
Between the 1850s and 1860, Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville (1817–1879) conducted experiments using the phonautograph to record sound vibrations on paper. These were not intended for playback at the time of recording, like later phonographs, but rather phonautograms that fixed sound vibrations as visual lines on paper to observe voices, singing, recitation, instrument sounds, scales, articulation, dynamics, and timbre. Nevertheless, in the 21st century, some of these recordings have become playable as sound, and they are now considered important documents showing that human voices and musical material were mechanically recorded before commercial recordings intended for playback.
Scott de Martinville is believed to have conducted some of the earliest experiments to fix the sounds of voices and musical instruments around 1853 or 1854. In 1857, he patented the phonograph, and his experiments in recording sound on paper developed into a more systematic study of acoustics. In 1859, through his relationship with Rudolph Koenig (1832–1901), the device was improved, and the phonograph increasingly took on the character of an experimental device for measuring, comparing, and preserving the shape of sound, rather than simply being a machine for listening to sound.
In 1860, a variety of sounds were recorded as phonotograms, including singing, recitation, pronunciation exercises, vocal scales, religious music, and melodies derived from opera comique. Some of these records from that year included time references based on tuning forks, which proved to be important clues for later reproduction and analysis. Among them, "Au Clair de la Lune" from April 9, 1860, is known as one of the oldest recordings of the human voice that can be reproduced and listened to today. However, these were not commercial recordings in the modern sense. They were not made to be listened to again as a commodity, but rather to preserve the form of sound and to scientifically observe voices and music.
Around the same time, the world was also undergoing a series of major changes in politics, communications, economics, and international relations. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Second French Empire signed the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty in 1860, liberalizing trade relations. In the United States, the Pony Express began operations, and Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) was elected president on November 6 of the same year. On December 20, South Carolina declared its secession from the Union, making tensions leading to the Civil War irrevocably high. In Japan, Ii Naosuke (1815–1860) was assassinated in the Sakuradamon Incident, bringing to the surface tensions in domestic politics surrounding the Tokugawa shogunate. The phonogram was an early attempt to preserve sounds that were disappearing in this era of change as a record for future generations.
Around 1853 or 1854
Around 1853 or 1854, Scott de Martinville conducted early experiments to fix the vibrations of voice and guitar sounds as visual lines. These early recordings, unlike later helical recordings, were at a stage where sound traces were left on a flat plane. This attempt, focusing on speech and guitar sounds, is considered a starting point for the phonograph experiments.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| premiers essais de fixation du son | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events that occurred around 1853 or 1854]
The Crimean War and the Treaty of Peace and Amity between Japan and the United States
In October 1853, the Crimean War began, developing into a large-scale conflict that shook the international order in Europe and around the Black Sea. On March 31, 1854, against the backdrop of the arrival of Matthew Calbraith Perry (1794–1858), the Treaty of Peace and Amity between the United States of America and the Empire of Japan was signed, marking the beginning of formal diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States.
1857
In 1857, Scott de Martinville's phonograph experiments began in earnest. Records from that year included both early attempts to leave traces of sound on a flat surface and a method of recording sound vibrations in a spiral pattern on paper rolled around a cylinder (helical recording). The subjects of recording also expanded to include human voices, singing, cornet, recitation, pronunciation, scales, and timbre comparisons, and experiments to fix and observe sound as a visual line rapidly became systematized. The phonogram of 1857 is considered an important step that led to the time-referenced recording of 1860.
early 1857
In early 1857, Scott de Martinville created phonograms, which left traces of sound on a flat surface. Records from this period include "phonautographie de la voix humaine à distance," which attempted to record the human voice from a distance, and "cornet: gamme par demi-tones," which focused on the chromatic scale of the cornet. Unlike the later helical recordings on paper rolled onto cylinders, these represent the beginning of the phonograph's use to fix sound vibrations as visual lines, allowing for the comparison and observation of voices and instrument sounds.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| phonautographie de la voix humaine à distance | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| cornet: gamme par demi-tones | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events in early 1857]
Dred Scott v. Sandford ruling
On March 6, 1857, the Supreme Court of the United States handed down the Dred Scott v. Sandford decision. This ruling further deepened the conflict over slavery and Union territory, creating significant political tension as the United States headed towards the Civil War.
July
In July 1857, Scott de Martinville recorded "chant de la voix – changements de ton" as a phonautogram. This record is considered one of the earliest helical records among Scott de Martinville's surviving phonautograms. The subject of the recording is believed to be singing or changes in pitch, but the specific melody or song title cannot be confirmed from the document. Also, while it can be confirmed that the record was made in July 1857, the exact date of creation within July cannot be confirmed.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| chant de la voix – changes de ton | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of July 1857]
- Expansion of the Indian Mutiny
Around July 1857, the Indian Mutiny was raging throughout North India. The rebellion against the British East India Company's rule became a major crisis affecting military affairs, colonial rule, communications, and administration, and had a strong impact on the international order of the mid-19th century.
August
In August 1857, Scott de Martinville recorded "Voix humaine – chant" as a phonagram. This recording focused on human singing and is considered a follow-up to his July experiment, "Chant de la voix – changements de ton." It was an attempt to fix the duration and pitch changes of the voice as visual lines, indicating that the phonagram experiment of 1857 had expanded to the observation of singing. The exact date of creation cannot be confirmed.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| human voices – chant | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of August 1857]
- The beginning of the 1857 depression
On August 24, 1857, the New York branch of the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company collapsed in the United States, triggering the Panic of 1857. Financial instability affected banking, commerce, and railroad investment, demonstrating that the economic growth of the mid-19th century was linked to instability in the credit system.
August 17
On August 17, 1857, Scott de Martinville recorded "jeune jouvencelle" as a phonagram. This record bears the date August 17, 1857, making it an important example among Scott de Martinville's surviving phonagrams that includes a specific creation date. The subject of the recording is a vocal performance, but it is not certain whether "jeune jouvencelle" refers to the song title, lyrics, or theme. It is an important record as an early vocal phonagram with a specific date.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jeune Jouvencelle | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of August 17, 1857]
- The United States economy just before the 1857 Depression
August 17, 1857, was just before the Great Depression of 1857 fully took hold in the United States. A week later, on August 24, the collapse of the New York branch of Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company became apparent, and financial instability rapidly spread to banks, commerce, and railroad investments.
August–October
Between August and October 1857, Scott de Martinville created several phonotograms focusing on singing, vocal intonation, vibrations of wooden tubes, and the material of recording needles. These recordings observed not only the human voice but also the vibrations that the voice imparts to membranes and wooden tubes, as well as the differences in lines produced by bristle recording needles. This series of experiments aimed to fix the vibrations of voice and materials as visual lines and compare the properties of sound.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| la voix chantée | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| notes cadencées | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| tuyau de frêne (a) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| tuyau de frêne (b) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| style de soie (a) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| style de soie (b) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events that occurred around August–October 1857]
- Financial instability and colonial rebellions occurring simultaneously
Between August and October 1857, the United States was experiencing the Panic of 1857 and the Indian Mutiny were unfolding simultaneously. While anxieties spread regarding finance, commerce, and railroad investment, the British East India Company's control was also severely shaken, and the mid-19th century world was unstable both economically and in terms of colonial rule.
Around October
Around October 1857, Scott de Martinville created several phonograms focusing on vocal timbre, low notes, vibrations of wooden tubes, cadences, dynamics, the difference between shouting and singing, and membrane responses. These recordings observe not only pitch and melody, but also sound quality, vocal intensity, the difference between shouting and singing, and how membranes and tubes vibrate. These records demonstrate that phonograph experiments had expanded from recording singing to comparing acoustic phenomena.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| notes du medium tenues et vocalisant | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| un son de voix grave | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| tuyau de frêne (c) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| cadences | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| mouvement de sforzendo sur chaque ton | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| vocalises / hurlements et cris | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| affollement | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events that occurred around October 1857]
- The expansion of the 1857 depression
Around October 1857, the effects of the Panic of 1857 were spreading across the United States, and anxieties surrounding banking, commerce, and railroad investment were intensifying. The instability of the credit system demonstrated that the economic growth of the mid-19th century was linked to instability in financial markets, and it had a significant impact on urban societies as well.
October
In October 1857, Scott de Martinville recorded "notre père qui êtes aux cieux" as a phonagram. This recording was of the Lord's Prayer being recited aloud, and it was an early attempt to fix the movement of speech, rather than singing, as a visual line. This shows that phonagram experiments were expanding in the direction of observing not only pitch and timbre, but also the changes in sound when uttering words.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| notre pere qui êtes aux cieux | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of October 1857]
- Founding of Sheffield Football Club
On October 24, 1857, the Sheffield Football Club was founded in England. This club marked the evolution of modern football from school and community customs to club-organized competition and became a symbolic event of the expansion of sports culture in the late 19th century.
Early November
In early November 1857, Scott de Martinville recorded "s'il faut qu'à ce rival (a)" and "s'il faut qu'à ce rival (b)" as phonograms. These were recordings of aloud a line from Act 4, Scene 2 of Jean-François Ducis's (1733–1816) Othello. Rather than singing, these were attempts to fix the intonation, stress, and flow of the voice as visual lines, demonstrating that phonograph experiments were expanding to the observation of spoken language and dramatic vocalization.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| s'il faut qu'à ce rival (a) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| s'il faut qu'à ce rival (b) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events that occurred around early November 1857]
The Indian Mutiny and the Battle of Lucknow
In early November 1857, fighting continued over Lucknow amidst the Indian Mutiny. The rebellion against British East India Company rule became a major crisis concerning military, administrative, and colonial rule, and had a strong impact on international affairs in the mid-19th century.
Around November
Around November 1857, Scott de Martinville created several phonograms to examine vocal scales, timbre, intonation, and frequencies using tuning forks. "gamme de do à do" records vocal scales, "timbre de la voix" records vocal timbre, and "l'onde d'inflexion : vocalises" and "l'onde d'inflexion" record changes in lines associated with vocal intonation. Additionally, "diapason donnant 512 vibrations par seconde" is positioned as an experiment attempting to determine sound frequencies using tuning fork vibrations. These records demonstrate that phonograph experiments were progressing from recording voices to measuring and comparing acoustic phenomena.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| gamme de do à do | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| timbre de la voix | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| l'onde d'inflexion: vocals | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| l'onde d'inflexion | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| diapason donnant 512 vibrations par seconde | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events that occurred around November 1857]
Social unrest following the 1857 depression
Around November 1857, the effects of the 1857 depression continued in the United States, with a contraction of banking credit, commercial instability, and rising unemployment becoming major social problems. The turmoil in railroad investment and financial markets demonstrated that the economic growth of the mid-19th century was closely intertwined with the instability of the credit system.
November 25
On November 25, 1857, Scott de Martinville recorded "conduit de plâtre" as a phonagram. This recording uses a plaster conduit that mimics the curve of the ear canal. This experiment aimed to suppress the inherent sound of the conduit itself and transmit the vibrations of the voice more stably to the membrane, demonstrating that phonagrams were used not only to record voices and songs, but also to verify the materials and shapes of sound-receiving devices. It is an important record among the phonagrams of 1857 that includes a specific date.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| conduit de plâtre | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of November 25, 1857]
- The Indian Mutiny and the withdrawal from Lucknow
In late November 1857, the Indian Mutiny continued with ongoing battles and retreats around Lucknow. The rebellion against British East India Company rule had a significant impact not only on military operations but also on communications, supply lines, and urban governance.
Late November – Early December
In late November to early December 1857, Scott de Martinville recorded "timbre du cornet à piston (a)" and "timbre du cornet à piston (b)" as phonograms. These were attempts to observe the timbre of the cornet as a visual line. This shows that phonograph experiments were expanding in the direction of comparing and recording the timbre of musical instruments, not just the pitch and intonation of voices.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| timbre du cornet a piston (a) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| timbre du cornet à piston (b) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events that took place around late November to early December 1857]
- Second Battle of Kanple
From November 19 to December 6, 1857, the Second Battle of Cawnpore took place during the Indian Mutiny. The fighting for Cawnpore (present-day Kanpur) was intertwined with the military situation around Lucknow and became a pivotal moment that determined the course of the rebellion in North India.
late 1857
In late 1857, Scott de Martinville recorded "cri de rugissement / chant" and "voix et cornet" as phonograms. "cri de rugissement / chant" is a record comparing the differences in vibration between shouting and singing. It was observed that the vibrations in singing were regular, while those in shouting were irregular. In "voix et cornet," the voice and cornet were compared at the same stylus position, and the differences between the voice and the instrument sound were recorded as visual lines. These demonstrate that phonogram experiments had progressed from recording voices and instrument sounds in isolation to comparing the properties of different sounds.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| cri de rugissement / chant | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| voix et cornet | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of the latter half of 1857]
The Second Opium War and the Attack on Guangzhou
In December 1857, during the Second Opium War, a combined force of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Second French Empire attacked Guangzhou in the Qing dynasty. This battle significantly shook the relationship between trade, diplomacy, and military power in East Asia and marked a shift in the international order of the mid-19th century.
1859
In 1859, Scott de Martinville recorded "étalonnage d'un son au moyen du chronomètre" as a phonagram. This record was an experiment that not only observed the voice and instrument sounds themselves, but also attempted to measure the frequency of sound vibrations using a chronometer. While the 1857 phonagram focused on comparing voices, singing, recitation, instrument sounds, and timbre, the 1859 experiment clearly moved in the direction of counting sound vibrations in relation to a time standard. This attempt was an important step that led to the time-referenced phonagram of 1860.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diapason at 435 Hz | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of 1859]
Carrington Event
On September 1-2, 1859, a massive solar storm known as the Carrington Event occurred. This phenomenon caused widespread aurora borealis and affected the telegraph network. Around the same time as the phonograph experiment, which attempted to record sound vibrations as lines, there was a growing scientific interest in observing, recording, and understanding natural phenomena in relation to communication technology.
Mid-to-late 1859 or 1860
In mid-to-late 1859 or 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "Hommage à m. le professeur regnault" and "Divers mouvements inscrits automatiquement" as phonograms. These are experimental fragments dealing with vocal harmonics, the relationship between fundamental and harmonics, simultaneous recording with tuning forks, multiple voices, vowels, and impact sounds. "Hommage à m. le professeur regnault" is material presented to Henri-Victor Regnault (1810–1878) and clearly shows the direction of recording vocal vibrations with a time reference using tuning forks. "Divers mouvements inscrits automatiquement" deals not only with voices but also with multiple voices and vibrations caused by impacts on objects. These recordings show that phonogram experiments were progressing from the observation of voices and instrument sounds to the comparison of sound components, time, and vibrations.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| hommage à m. le professeur regnault (fragments) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| divers mouvements instructions automatiquement (fragments) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events from mid-to-late 1859 or 1860]
- Publication of "On the Origin of Species"
On November 24, 1859, the first edition of Charles Darwin's (1809–1882) *On the Origin of Species* was published. This work presented a new framework for observing, comparing, and explaining biodiversity and change, and had a profound impact on 19th-century natural science. At the same time as the phonograph experiment, which attempted to visually record sound vibrations, there was a growing scientific interest in understanding natural phenomena through recording and comparison.
1860
In 1860, Scott de Martinville's phonautograph experiments made significant progress, developing into time-referenced phonautograms. Records from that year involved simultaneously recording the vibrations of voices and singing using tuning forks, aiming to observe pitch, intonation, overtones, articulation, and the differences between voice and instrumental sounds in greater detail. "Au clair de la lune (a)" from April 9, 1860, is an important human voice recording that simultaneously preserves the time reference of singing and tuning forks. Subsequently, recordings of recitations, vocal scales, pronunciation exercises, religious music, and melodies derived from opera-comique were made, and the process progressed to verifying how sound travels through membranes and solids using devices that mimicked the ossicles and oval windows. These phonautograms were not commercial recordings intended to reproduce sound as a commodity, but rather experimental records for preserving, measuring, and comparing voices and music as visual lines.
April
In April 1860, Scott de Martinville created several phonograms focusing on singing, recitation, vocal scales, chords, overtones, and articulation. Records from this month include singing recordings with tuning fork time references, theatrical recitations, vocal scales, articulation decomposition, and apparatus experiments that considered the structure of the ear. The phonograms from April 1860 demonstrate that phonograph experiments were progressing not only in the sense of visually representing sound as lines, but also in the sense of comparing vocal pitch, resonance, intonation, articulation, and time references.
April 9
On April 9, 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "au clair de la lune (a)" as a phonagram. This recording is an important human voice record that simultaneously captured singing and a time reference using a tuning fork. It not only preserved the vibrations of the voice as a visual line, but also attempted to observe the pitch and time references together, demonstrating the increasing measurability of phonagram experiments.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Au Clair de la Lune (a) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of April 9, 1860]
Pony Express's first eastbound service arrives in Salt Lake City.
On April 9, 1860, the first horseman to depart from the east on the Pony Express of the United States arrived in Salt Lake City. Long-distance mail transport by horse was an attempt to speed up the transmission of information between East and West before the telegraph network was established across the continent. At the same time as the phonautograph experiments, which attempted to record sound vibrations on paper, attempts to deliver information quickly to distant places were also progressing in communication.
April 17
On April 17, 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "au clair de la lune (b)" and "s'il faut qu'à ce rival (c)" as phonotograms. "au clair de la lune (b)" simultaneously recorded singing and a timing reference using a tuning fork, following a singing experiment on April 9th with "au clair de la lune (a)". "s'il faut qu'à ce rival (c)" is a recitation-type recording of the same lines that were recorded in 1857. These two recordings from that day attempted to compare the pitch, intonation, and timing reference of voices as visual lines in both singing and recitation.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Au Clair de la Lune (b) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| s'il faut qu'à ce rival (c) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of April 17, 1860]
- The match between Tom Sayers and John Kamel Heenan
On April 17, 1860, a bare-knuckle boxing match took place in Farnborough, England, between Tom Sayers (1826–1865) and John Camel Heenan (1834–1873). The match lasted for a long time and ended in a draw when spectators entered the ring. This event demonstrates how popular sports in the 19th century were attracting attention as international entertainment.
April 18
On April 18, 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "gamme de la voix (a)," "d'accord parfait," "la même déclamation," and "épellation du mot rira" as phonotograms. "gamme de la voix (a)" is a recording of vocal scales along with a time reference using a tuning fork. "d'accord parfait" is a record concerning perfect chords, and "la même déclamation" is a record to show the overtones contained in recitation. However, it is not certain which recitation "la même déclamation" refers to. In "épellation du mot rira," the word "rira" is broken down, and the relationship between the r sound pronounced in the back of the throat and the vowel is observed. The records from this day are a series of experiments that not only preserved voices as melodies and words, but also attempted to compare scales, chords, overtones, and the connections between consonants and vowels as visual lines.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gamme de la Voix (a) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| D'accord parfait | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| La même déclamation | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville | ||
| Épellation du mot rira | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of April 18, 1860]
Pony Express's dangerous mail transport
On April 18, 1860, in the United States, a jockey on the Pony Express, traveling from San Francisco to Saint Joseph, died in a fall during the journey. While high-speed mail transport accelerated the transmission of information over long distances, it was also a dangerous job involving nighttime travel, rough roads, and long-distance journeys. At the same time as the phonautograph experiments, which attempted to record sound vibrations on paper, attempts to deliver information faster were also being made in perilous ways.
April 19
On April 19, 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "le jour nê pa plus pur ke le fon de mon cœur" as a phonagram. This is a transcription of the phrase "Le jour n'est pas plus pur que le fond de mon cœur" from Act 4, Scene 2 of Jean Racine's (1639–1699) Phèdre, using a spelling that closely resembles its pronunciation. The phonagram shows evidence that the phrase was read aloud once, and then repeated partway through a second time. This phrase, consisting of a series of monosyllabic words, was used as suitable material for observing the flow of voice, syllable breaks, and rhythm of speech as visual lines.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| le jour nê pa plus pur ke le fon de mon keur | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of April 19, 1860]
- The birth of William Penfro Rowlands
On April 19, 1860, William Penfro Rowlands (1860–1937), a Welsh composer and church musician, was born. Rowlands later composed the hymn melody "Blaenwern." This melody became widely used in English-language hymns from the 20th century onward, becoming an example of a 19th-century composer's work being sung for a long time in later worship music.
April 20
On April 20, 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "au clair de la lune (c)" as a phonagram. This recording followed recordings of "au clair de la lune" from April 9 and April 17, but it was not simply a re-recording. The recording includes descriptions of the natural tilt of the eardrum, the oval window, and rubber, and can be seen as an experiment to record singing using a device configuration that was conscious of the structure of the ear. It was an attempt to capture not only pitch and time standards of the voice, but also timbre and how sound travels as a visual line.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Au Clair de la Lune (c) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of April 20, 1860]
- Request for observation cooperation from the Smithsonian Institution
On April 20, 1860, Joseph Henry (1797–1878) of the Smithsonian Institution sent a request to employees of the Hudson's Bay Company asking for their cooperation in weather and climate observations and the collection of natural history data in the Hudson Bay Territory. The purpose of this request was to collect records of the climate of northern North America, as well as natural history data such as birds, fish, and insects. Around the same time as the phonotograph experiment, which attempted to record sound vibrations on paper, systems for observing, recording, and comparing natural phenomena were also becoming widespread.
April–May
Around April–May 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "chi crederia che sotto forme umane" as a phonogram. This record uses an Italian phrase from the beginning of Torquato Tasso's (1544–1595) "Aminta." In this experiment, the stress of words, rather than pitch or melody, was observed as pitch. The record indicates that it was a study of pitch accent at the request of Regnault. It also describes a method of constructing an artificial eardrum with multiple elastic layers, indicating that phonograph experiments were expanding to verifying speech rhythm, pitch accent, and devices that mimicked the structure of the ear.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Opening lines from Tasso's Aminta | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events that occurred around April-May 1860]
- The start of the thousand-man expedition
In May 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) led a group of volunteers in the Expedition of the Thousand. This expedition significantly altered the political situation in Sicily and Southern Italy, becoming a crucial event that led to the collapse of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the unification of Italy. Around the same time as the phonograph experiment, which attempted to record and compare sound vibrations, political changes surrounding national unification were also rapidly progressing in Europe.
May
In May 1860, Scott de Martinville's phonograph experiments progressed in the direction of linking vocal scales, time references using tuning forks, harmonics, and membrane treatment of artificial eardrums. The experiments conducted in April, which involved singing, recitation, pronunciation, and apparatus that took into account the structure of the ear, were further enhanced in May by the records of May. The experiment had progressed to the stage where researchers were not only trying to record the voice as a melody, but also to compare vocal vibrations with a time reference and observe harmonics and membrane responses as visual lines.
May 17
On May 17, 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "Gamme de la Voix (b)" as a phonagram. This recording captures the pitch of a voice along with a time reference using a tuning fork. In the May 17th recording, harmonics are shown within the principal vibration of the voice, and a membrane processed according to Regnault's instructions was used. The margin also notes that the membrane of an artificial eardrum was fixed in the center, and the tuning fork was recorded simultaneously between the lines. Following "Gamme de la Voix (a)" on April 18th, this recording attempts to observe not only the pitch of the voice, but also the harmonics, time reference, and membrane response together.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gamme de la Voix (b) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of May 17, 1860]
- Founded in 1860 by T.S.F. Munich
On May 17, 1860, TSV Munich von 1860 was founded in Munich. Although it would later become known for its football division, it started as a gymnastics and sports organization. In the mid-19th century, while scientific attempts to record and observe sounds and natural phenomena were progressing, a new leisure culture through physical activity and club organizations was also spreading in urban societies.
september
In September 1860, Scott de Martinville's phonograph experiments progressed further, combining a device configuration that took the structure of the ear into consideration with a time reference using a tuning fork. Records from this month used singing, vocal scales, religious music, and melodies derived from opera comique. Experiments conducted in April and May concerning vocal pitch, overtones, artificial eardrums, and the oval window expanded in September to recordings that took into account the ossicles and stapes base plate. The experiment had progressed beyond simply preserving voice as a visual line, and was now attempting to recreate on the device how the ear receives sound and transmits vibrations.
September 1st
On September 1, 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "Et Incarnatus Est de Chérubini" as a phonagram. This recording is believed to be a recording of a song derived from "Et Incarnatus Est," which is included in Luigi Cherubini's (1760–1842) "Missa Solemnis in D minor." The recording shows that the singing voice was recorded using the bottom plate of the stapes, and a fixed node was created in the oval window. Following experiments with artificial eardrums and membrane processing up to May, the September 1st recording had progressed to the stage of attempting to capture vocal vibrations as visual lines by configuring the device with an awareness of the chain of ossicles.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Et Incarnatus Est de Chérubini | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of September 1, 1860]
- Publication of the minutes of the Kohimarama Conference
On September 1, 1860, the minutes of the Kohimarama Conference, held near Auckland, were published in the New Zealand colony's bilingual newspaper, "Maori Messenger: Te Karere Maori." This conference was an important meeting concerning the relationship between Maori chiefs and the colonial government, and it is an example of political dialogue being recorded in newspaper form at the time. Around the same time as the phonograph experiment, which attempted to record sound vibrations on paper, political statements and the contents of meetings were also preserved as written records that could be referenced later.
Early September
In early September 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "Gamme de la Voix (c)" as a phonagram. This recording captures the pitch of the voice using a device configuration that was mindful of an oval window and the bottom plate of the stapes. Following the same approach as "Et Incarnatus Est de Chérubini" on September 1st, it attempts to capture the pitch of the voice as a visual line by simultaneously recording a tuning fork between the lines. Following the voice pitch recordings of April 18th and May 17th, this recording further clarifies the direction of observing the vibration of the voice in conjunction with a device configuration that mimics the chain of ossicles.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gamme de la Voix (c) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events that occurred around early September 1860]
- The sinking of the Lady Elgin
On September 8, 1860, the Lady Elgin collided with the schooner Augusta on Lake Michigan in the United States and sank. It is estimated that approximately 300 people lost their lives in this accident. In the mid-19th century, while the movement of people and information became more active, water transport and long-distance travel also carried significant risks.
September 15
On September 15, 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "Vole, Petite Abeille (a)" as a phonagram. This recording is a vocal recording using the melody of "La Chanson de l'Abeille" from Victor Massé's (1822–1884) opera-comique "La Reine Topaze". The recording shows recordings using a simple membrane and a stapes base plate with the membrane removed, and a tuning fork is also recorded simultaneously between the lines. Following experiments with devices that were conscious of the ossicles, which were attempted in the recordings on September 1st and early September, this recording was an attempt to capture vocalizations as lines at the ends of artificial ossicles.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vole, Petite Abeille (a) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events of September 15, 1860]
A print of Central Park was published in Harper's Weekly.
On September 15, 1860, an engraving of Central Park by Winslow Homer (1836–1910) was published in the American magazine Harper's Weekly. This work depicted people traveling through the city park in New York City in horse-drawn carriages. Around the same time as the phonograph experiment, which attempted to record sound vibrations on paper, urban landscapes and leisure culture were also being recorded through engravings in newspapers and magazines.
Mid-to-late September
In mid-to-late September 1860, Scott de Martinville recorded "Vole, Petite Abeille (b)" as a phonagram. This recording is a vocal recording using the same melody as "Vole, Petite Abeille (a)" recorded on September 15th. While the September 15th recording attempted to record using the stapes base plate with the membrane removed, this recording uses the stapes base plate at the end of the chain of ossicles, a measuring tuning fork, and an amplifying stylus. Because the movement of the stapes is weak, this was an experiment to amplify its movement to a recordable size using an amplifying stylus.
| Title | Artist | Matrix | Catalog No. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vole, Petite Abeille (b) | Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville |
[Events that took place around mid-to-late September 1860]
- Battle of Castelfidardo
On September 18, 1860, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Papal States fought at Castelfidardo. This battle resulted in a victory for Sardinia, significantly advancing the political and military momentum toward Italian unification. While experiments to capture sound vibrations with devices were progressing, major changes were also underway in Europe regarding the framework of nation-states.
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