Music recorded in 1935
In 1935, while the post-Great Depression recovery was underway in many parts of the world, the "stoppers" of the international order loosened, and rearmament and imperialism turned into actual war. While conflicts were seemingly "managed" within the language of diplomatic conferences and treaties, in reality the dynamics leading to another world war were accelerating.
In Europe, a referendum in the Saar region on January 13 decided to return the Saar to Germany, ending the League of Nations' mandate. The following April, Britain, France, and Italy formed the Stresa Front to demonstrate their opposition to German rearmament, but the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of June 18 revealed cracks in cooperation. On September 15, the Nuremberg Laws were enacted in Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler (1889–1945), marking the first step in the nation's efforts to incorporate racial classification into its legal system.
At the same time, the limitations of collective security became apparent on the battlefield. In October, Italy, led by Benito Mussolini (1883–1945), invaded Ethiopia, starting the Second Ethiopian War (1935–1936). The League of Nations moved to impose sanctions, but in December, British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare (1880–1959) and French Prime Minister Pierre Laval (1883–1945) drafted a secret plan (the Hoare-Laval Plan) to give most of Ethiopia to Italy in exchange for ending the war. However, the plan collapsed after the plan was leaked, drawing strong criticism. This was a stark demonstration of the fact that the system for deterring aggression relied on the "will of the great powers."
Movements to redesign the framework of the empire also progressed. On August 2, the United Kingdom enacted the Government of India Act, 1935, which brought about major reforms to the governing system of British India. On November 15, the Philippine Commonwealth was established in the Philippines, with Manuel L. Quezon (1878–1944) inaugurated as president and Sergio Osmeña (1878–1961) as vice president. At a time when the ruling structure of the great powers was in turmoil, institutional development toward autonomy and independence was also underway at the same time.
In terms of social policy, there have been notable attempts by the state to institutionalize "support for life." In the United States, the Works Progress Administration was launched on May 6, the National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) was signed on July 5, and the Social Security Act was enacted on August 14, restructuring the foundations of modern society: employment, work, and retirement. However, the Neutrality Act of 1935 was enacted on August 31, and we can see moves to solidify a system of avoiding intervention even amid growing external crises.
Media and technology also provided the foundation for amplifying contemporary politics and popular culture. In Germany, regular television programming began on March 22, with new simultaneous viewing circuits being incorporated. This expansion of communications and broadcasting further enriched the atmosphere of the late 1930s, as it became a "vessel" that could be used equally for political propaganda and entertainment. The events of 1935 demonstrate how the three layers of institutions (law and administration), international order (agreements and federations), and media (broadcasting) interacted to push the world toward its next fault line.
